AP® United States Government and Politics review sheet from Aim for Five (aimforfive.com/gov/units/1/1-6)
Unit 1 · Topic 1.6
1.6 Principles of American Government
The Constitution divides national power among three branches (separation of powers) and gives each branch tools to block the others (checks and balances). Madison's Federalist No. 51 explains why: people aren't angels, so power must be set against power. This design protects liberty but also creates many access points for influence and makes quick action hard.
Key terms
- separation of powers
- checks and balances
- Federalist No. 51
- impeachment and removal
- multiple access points
Separation of powers
Separation of powers means each branch has its own job. Congress makes laws (Article I). The president enforces them (Article II). The courts interpret them (Article III). Each branch also has its own source of authority: House members are elected by voters in districts, senators by voters statewide (since 1913), the president through the Electoral College, and judges by appointment and confirmation. Because no branch picks the others' members, each can act independently.
Checks and balances
Separation alone isn't enough, so the Constitution lets each branch limit the others. Learn the main checks in this table.
| Branch | Checks on the legislature | Checks on the executive | Checks on the judiciary |
|---|---|---|---|
| Legislative (Congress) | Each chamber can block the other's bills | Override vetoes (two-thirds of each chamber), impeach and remove, confirm appointments and ratify treaties (Senate), control funding, declare war | Confirm judges (Senate), impeach and remove judges, set the size of courts and their appellate jurisdiction, propose amendments |
| Executive (president) | Veto bills, call special sessions, recommend legislation | (none) | Nominate judges, pardon people for federal crimes |
| Judicial (courts) | Declare laws unconstitutional (judicial review) | Declare executive actions unconstitutional | (none) |
Federalist No. 51 (Madison, 1788)
Federalist No. 51 explains the thinking behind this structure. Madison's starting point is human nature: “If men were angels, no government would be necessary.” Since people aren't angels, government must be strong enough to control the governed and also be made to control itself.
His key ideas:
- Each branch should have “a will of its own,” so members of one branch shouldn't depend on another for their pay or position.
- “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.” Give officials in each branch the means and the personal motive to resist power grabs by the others.
- In a republic the legislature naturally becomes the strongest branch, so it's divided into two chambers chosen in different ways.
- Federalism adds a “double security”: power is split between the national government and the states, and then split again among branches.
- A large society with many interests protects minority rights, echoing Federalist No. 10.
Impeachment and removal
Impeachment is the formal accusation of wrongdoing; removal is what happens if the official is convicted. The House impeaches by a simple majority vote. The Senate then holds a trial, and conviction requires a two-thirds vote. When a president is tried, the chief justice presides. The grounds are “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.” Presidents, vice presidents, federal judges and other civil officers can be impeached.
Several presidents have been impeached by the House, starting with Andrew Johnson in 1868 and including Bill Clinton in 1998, but the Senate has never convicted and removed a president. Richard Nixon resigned in 1974 before the full House voted. A small number of federal judges have been removed this way.
Multiple access points
Because power is spread out, people and groups have many places to try to influence policy. A group that loses in Congress can lobby an agency writing the rules, sue in federal court, or turn to state governments. This is a big reason the U.S. system favors pluralism (1.2). The trade-off is that so many veto points make major change slow, which supporters call protection against rash action and critics call gridlock.
Worked examples
Try each one yourself first, then open the solution.
- Example 1
Explaining a check in a scenario
Congress passes a bill, and the president vetoes it. Two-thirds of the House then votes to override, but only 60 of 100 senators vote to override. Does the bill become law? Explain which principle the scenario shows.
Show the solutionHide the solution
- Step 1: Recall the rule: an override needs two-thirds of those voting in each chamber. With all 100 senators voting, that means at least 67.
- Step 2: Compare: 60 is short of 67, so the override fails even though the House succeeded.
- Step 3: Name the principle: the veto is the president's check on Congress, and the override is Congress's check on the president. Both are examples of checks and balances.
Answer: No. The Senate fell short of two-thirds (67 of 100), so the veto stands. The scenario shows checks and balances between the executive and legislative branches.
Common mistakes
- Saying impeachment means removal. Impeachment is the House's accusation; removal requires conviction by two-thirds of the Senate.
- Mixing up separation of powers (each branch has a distinct job) with checks and balances (each branch can limit the others). A question may test the difference.
- Saying judicial review is written in the Constitution. It was established by Marbury v. Madison (1803), covered in 2.8.
On the exam
- Federalist No. 51 is a common choice in the argument essay for claims about preventing tyranny or about the value of checks and balances. Explain the “ambition must counteract ambition” logic in your own words.
- Concept application questions often describe a clash between branches and ask you to identify and explain the check involved.
Connected topics
Videos
Check yourself
4 questions on 1.6 Principles of American Government. Pick an answer to see if you got it, and why.
But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department the necessary constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the others. … Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. … If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary.
… In the compound republic of America, the power surrendered by the people is first divided between two distinct governments, and then the portion allotted to each subdivided among distinct and separate departments. Hence a double security arises to the rights of the people.
James Madison, Federalist No. 51, 1788
Which constitutional provision best illustrates the principle that “ambition must be made to counteract ambition”?
In the second paragraph, the “double security” for the people's rights refers to
The House of Representatives votes 230 to 195 to impeach a federal district judge for accepting bribes. After a trial, 60 senators vote to convict and 40 vote to acquit. What happens next?
An environmental group loses a vote in a House committee. It then lobbies senators to add its plan to a different bill, asks the president to act through an executive order and files a lawsuit in federal court. The group's strategy best illustrates how
0 of 4 answered