Must-know sheet

US Government must-know sheet

Every required Supreme Court case and foundational document in the current course, plus the clauses, amendments and terms you need for AP US Government and Politics. The real exam gives you no reference sheet, so you need the case names, holdings and document arguments in your head.

Required cases: federalism, Congress and the courts

Units 1, 2

Marbury v. Madison (1803) · Article III, judicial review: Facts: William Marbury was named a justice of the peace in the last days of John Adams's presidency, but his commission was never delivered, and the new Secretary of State, James Madison, refused to hand it over. Marbury asked the Supreme Court to order delivery under a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789. Holding: Marbury deserved the job, but that section of the act unconstitutionally expanded the Court's original jurisdiction beyond what Article III allows, so the Court could not give him the order. Why it matters: it established judicial review, the courts' power to strike down laws that conflict with the Constitution.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) · Necessary and Proper Clause, Supremacy Clause: Facts: Maryland taxed the Baltimore branch of the Second Bank of the United States, and the bank's cashier, James McCulloch, refused to pay. Holding (unanimous): Congress could create a bank as an implied power under the Necessary and Proper Clause, and a state cannot tax the national government because federal law is supreme. Why it matters: it expanded national power through implied powers and confirmed national supremacy over the states.
United States v. Lopez (1995) · Commerce Clause, Tenth Amendment: Facts: A high school senior in San Antonio brought a handgun to school and was charged under the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990. Holding (5–4): Congress went beyond its commerce power, because carrying a gun near a school is not economic activity that substantially affects interstate commerce. Why it matters: it was the first time in decades the Court limited the Commerce Clause, protecting powers reserved to the states.
Baker v. Carr (1962) · Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause: Facts: Tennessee had not redrawn its state legislative districts since 1901, so fast-growing cities had far more people per district than rural areas, and urban voters said their votes counted less. Holding (6–2): redistricting is not a 'political question' off-limits to judges, so federal courts can hear these cases. Why it matters: it opened the door to the 'one person, one vote' rulings that require districts with roughly equal populations.
Shaw v. Reno (1993) · Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause: Facts: To create a second majority-Black congressional district, North Carolina drew a long, snake-like District 12 that followed a highway for much of its length, and white voters challenged it. Holding (5–4): a district so oddly shaped that it can only be explained by race can be challenged under the Equal Protection Clause, and race-based districting must meet strict scrutiny. Why it matters: it limits racial gerrymandering, even when the goal is to help minority voters.

Required cases: civil liberties, civil rights and campaigns

Units 3, 5

Engel v. Vitale (1962) · First Amendment establishment clause: Facts: New York's state Board of Regents wrote a short, nondenominational prayer for students to say at the start of the school day, and students could stay silent or leave. Holding (6–1): school-sponsored prayer violates the establishment clause even if it is voluntary and doesn't favor one religion. Why it matters: public schools can't lead students in official prayer.
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) · First Amendment free exercise clause: Facts: Amish parents refused to send their children to school after eighth grade, breaking a Wisconsin law that required attendance until age 16. Holding: the free exercise clause protected the families, because the state's interest in two more years of schooling did not outweigh the burden on their religious way of life. Why it matters: free exercise can require exemptions from a general law when the burden on religion is heavy and the state's interest is weaker.
Schenck v. United States (1919) · First Amendment speech clause: Facts: During World War I, Charles Schenck mailed leaflets urging men to resist the draft and was convicted under the Espionage Act. Holding (unanimous): the conviction stood, because speech that creates a 'clear and present danger' of serious harm Congress may prevent is not protected, especially in wartime. Why it matters: free speech is not absolute; later the Court narrowed the test in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), protecting speech unless it is meant to and likely to cause imminent lawless action.
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) · First Amendment speech clause: Facts: Students wore black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War and were suspended. Holding (7–2): wearing the armbands was protected symbolic speech, and students keep their free speech rights at school unless their speech causes substantial disruption. Why it matters: it protects symbolic speech and students' rights, while letting schools act against real disruption.
New York Times Co. v. United States (1971) · First Amendment press clause: Facts: The Nixon administration tried to stop newspapers from publishing the Pentagon Papers, a leaked, classified history of the Vietnam War, citing national security. Holding (6–3): the government did not meet the heavy burden needed to justify prior restraint, so the papers could publish. Why it matters: it set a very strong presumption against government blocking a story before publication.
McDonald v. Chicago (2010) · Second Amendment, Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause: Facts: Chicago's ban on owning handguns kept a retiree and others from keeping a handgun at home for self-defense. Holding (5–4): the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms for self-defense, recognized in District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), applies to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment. Why it matters: it is an example of selective incorporation; courts still decide which gun regulations are allowed.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) · Sixth Amendment right to counsel, Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause: Facts: Clarence Earl Gideon, charged with a felony in Florida, asked for a lawyer he couldn't afford, was refused, defended himself and was convicted; he appealed with a handwritten petition. Holding (unanimous): states must provide a lawyer to defendants in felony cases who can't afford one. Why it matters: it incorporated the right to counsel against the states and strengthened procedural due process.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) · Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause: Facts: Black students, including Linda Brown in Topeka, Kansas, were required to attend separate schools; the NAACP, led by Thurgood Marshall, challenged segregation in several combined cases. Holding (unanimous): separate public schools for Black and white students are inherently unequal and violate equal protection, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson's 'separate but equal' rule for public education. Why it matters: it shows the Court overturning precedent and helped spark the civil rights movement.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) · First Amendment speech clause: Facts: A nonprofit group, Citizens United, wanted to air and advertise a film criticizing a 2008 presidential candidate close to the primaries, which the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act barred for corporate-funded ads. Holding (5–4): government may not limit independent political spending by corporations, unions and other groups, because political spending is protected speech; disclosure rules were upheld. Why it matters: it helped lead to super PACs, which a lower court allowed later in 2010; direct contributions to candidates are still limited.

Other cases the course mentions (not required)

Unit 3

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Upheld a Louisiana law segregating railroad cars, creating the 'separate but equal' rule. Brown v. Board (1954) rejected it for public schools; it's the classic example of a precedent later overturned.
District of Columbia v. Heller (2008): Held that the Second Amendment protects an individual's right to keep a handgun at home for self-defense, not only a right tied to militia service. It applied to the federal District of Columbia; McDonald v. Chicago extended the right to the states.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Police must warn suspects in custody of their right to stay silent and to have a lawyer before questioning them, or the statements usually can't be used. Later cases added a public safety exception.
Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Applied the exclusionary rule to the states: evidence found through an unconstitutional search usually can't be used at trial. It's the standard example of the Fourth Amendment's protection being incorporated.
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): Struck down a Connecticut ban on birth control for married couples and recognized a right to privacy that the Constitution doesn't list by name. It is the starting point for substantive due process and privacy debates.
Roe v. Wade (1973) and Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022): Roe extended the right to privacy to abortion. Dobbs overturned Roe, holding that the Constitution doesn't protect a right to abortion and returning the issue to elected lawmakers; supporters and opponents still disagree over which unlisted rights due process protects.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) and Grutter v. Bollinger (2003): Bakke struck down racial quotas in admissions but allowed race as one factor; Grutter upheld a law school's use of race as one factor to build diversity.
Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard (2023): Held that race-conscious admissions at Harvard and the University of North Carolina violated equal protection and federal civil rights law, effectively ending race as a factor in most college admissions. Supporters said it ends unequal treatment by race; critics said it will reduce diversity.
Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969): Replaced the clear and present danger test: speech that advocates force or lawbreaking is protected unless it is meant to cause, and likely to cause, imminent lawless action.

Required foundational documents: founding era

Units 1, 2

Declaration of Independence (1776) · mainly Thomas Jefferson: Main idea: people have natural, unalienable rights such as life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness; government gets its power from the consent of the governed; and when government destroys those rights, people may change or abolish it. Use it as evidence for natural rights, social contract, popular sovereignty and limited government.
Articles of Confederation (written 1777, in effect 1781): Main idea: a loose 'league of friendship' among sovereign states with a one-house Congress, one vote per state, no power to tax or regulate trade between states, no executive or national courts, nine of 13 states to pass major laws and all 13 to amend. Use it as evidence of what goes wrong when the central government is too weak, as Shays' Rebellion showed.
U.S. Constitution (written 1787, ratified 1788): Main idea: a stronger national government with separated powers, checks and balances, federalism, limited government and popular sovereignty ('We the People'), built from compromises and changeable through Article V. Use specific articles and clauses as evidence for almost any argument about how power is divided.
Federalist No. 10 (1787) · James Madison: Main idea: factions are unavoidable because they come from human nature, especially unequal property, and removing their causes would destroy liberty, so government must control their effects. A large republic with elected representatives includes so many interests that no single faction can easily take over. Use it for pluralist democracy, interest groups, representation and why a big republic protects liberty.
Brutus No. 1 (1787) · Anti-Federalist, probably Robert Yates: Main idea: a republic as large as the United States can't truly represent its people; the Necessary and Proper and Supremacy Clauses would let the national government swallow the states; and distant representatives would be an elite out of touch with ordinary people. Use it for states' rights, participatory democracy, fears of national power and the case for a bill of rights.
Federalist No. 51 (1788) · James Madison: Main idea: because people aren't angels, government must be built so ambition checks ambition. Separation of powers, checks and balances, a two-house legislature and federalism (a 'double security' for rights) keep any one branch or group from abusing power. Use it for separation of powers, checks and balances, federalism and limited government.
Federalist No. 39 (1788) · James Madison: Main idea: the Constitution creates a republic whose power comes from the people, and it is partly national and partly federal: for example, the House represents the people, the Senate represents the states, ratification is by the states, and the government acts directly on individuals. Use it to answer the charge that the Constitution erases the states, and for federalism and republicanism.
Federalist No. 70 (1788) · Alexander Hamilton: Main idea: good government needs an energetic executive, and one president (not a council) can act with decision, speed and secrecy, and is easier to hold accountable. Use it for arguments about presidential power, the unitary executive and national security.
Federalist No. 78 (1788) · Alexander Hamilton: Main idea: the judiciary is the least dangerous branch because it controls neither the military nor money, only judgment. Judges serving for life during good behavior can stay independent, and courts must treat laws that conflict with the Constitution as void. Use it for judicial independence, life tenure and judicial review.

Required foundational documents: later eras

Units 1, 3, 4

The Wealth of Nations (1776) · Adam Smith: Main idea: when people pursue their own interests in free, competitive markets, they end up benefiting society as if guided by an 'invisible hand'; specialization (division of labor) raises output; and government's main jobs are defense, justice and some public works, not directing the economy. Use it for free enterprise, limited government in the economy and debates over regulation between liberals, conservatives and libertarians.
Emancipation Proclamation (1863) · Abraham Lincoln: Main idea: as a war measure under his power as commander in chief, Lincoln declared enslaved people in areas still in rebellion free as of January 1, 1863, and let Black men join the Union army. It did not cover loyal border states or Union-held areas; the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) ended slavery everywhere. Use it for executive power in wartime and for government protecting minority rights.
Gettysburg Address (1863) · Abraham Lincoln: Main idea: in a short speech at a Civil War cemetery, Lincoln tied the war to the Declaration's promise that all men are created equal and called for a 'new birth of freedom' so that government of, by and for the people would survive. Use it for popular sovereignty, equality and representative democracy.
'Letter from a Birmingham Jail' (1963) · Martin Luther King Jr.: Main idea: written in jail after his arrest at a Birmingham protest, it answers clergy who called the protests untimely: people have a moral duty to break unjust laws openly, peacefully and accepting the penalty; waiting has meant never; and injustice anywhere threatens justice everywhere. Use it for civil disobedience, participatory democracy, social movements, equal protection and minority rights.

Constitution: key articles and clauses

Units 1, 2

Article I · Congress: Sets up a bicameral Congress and lists its enumerated powers in Section 8, such as taxing, borrowing, declaring war, raising armies and regulating commerce. Revenue bills must start in the House.
Commerce Clause (Article I, Section 8): Lets Congress regulate trade with other countries, among the states and with Native American tribes. It's the main source of federal regulatory power, expanded over time and limited in Lopez.
Necessary and Proper (Elastic) Clause (Article I, Section 8): Lets Congress make all laws needed to carry out its listed powers. It is the source of implied powers, as McCulloch held.
Article II · the president: Gives the president the executive power: commander in chief, making treaties (with two-thirds of the Senate), appointing officials and judges (with Senate confirmation), vetoing bills, granting pardons and giving the State of the Union.
Article III · the courts: Creates the Supreme Court, lets Congress set up lower federal courts, and gives judges life terms during good behavior with salaries that can't be cut. Judicial review isn't written here; Marbury established it.
Article IV · relations among states: Requires states to honor each other's public acts and court rulings (full faith and credit), to treat citizens of other states fairly (privileges and immunities) and to return fugitives (extradition).
Article V · amending: Propose an amendment by two-thirds of both houses of Congress or by a national convention requested by two-thirds of state legislatures; ratify by three-fourths of the states, through legislatures or conventions. All 27 amendments were proposed by Congress.
Supremacy Clause (Article VI): The Constitution, federal laws and treaties are the supreme law of the land; when a valid federal law conflicts with a state law, the federal law wins.
Impeachment and removal: The House impeaches (formally charges) by majority vote; the Senate holds the trial and needs two-thirds to convict and remove. The Chief Justice presides when the president is tried.
Veto, override and pocket veto: The president has 10 days (Sundays excepted) to sign or veto a bill. Congress can override a veto with two-thirds of both houses. If Congress adjourns during those 10 days and the president doesn't sign, the bill dies (pocket veto) and can't be overridden.

Key amendments

Units 1, 2, 3, 5

First Amendment: Protects religion (establishment and free exercise clauses), speech, press, assembly and petition. Cases: Engel, Yoder, Schenck, Tinker, New York Times, Citizens United.
Second Amendment: The right to keep and bear arms; an individual right for self-defense (Heller) that also limits states (McDonald).
Fourth Amendment: Bans unreasonable searches and seizures and usually requires a warrant based on probable cause. Basis of the exclusionary rule and today's debates over phone and digital data.
Fifth Amendment: Grand jury for serious federal crimes, no double jeopardy, no forced self-incrimination (the basis of Miranda warnings), due process at the federal level, and fair pay when government takes property.
Sixth Amendment: Rights of the accused at trial: a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, knowing the charges, confronting witnesses and having a lawyer (Gideon).
Eighth Amendment: Bans excessive bail and fines and cruel and unusual punishment; the center of death penalty debates.
Ninth Amendment: Listing some rights doesn't mean people lack others; cited for unenumerated rights such as privacy.
Tenth Amendment: Powers not given to the national government nor denied to the states are reserved to the states or the people. Basis of reserved powers and arguments in Lopez.
Thirteenth Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery throughout the United States.
Fourteenth Amendment (1868): Makes everyone born or naturalized here a citizen, and bars states from denying due process or equal protection of the laws. The Due Process Clause is the tool of selective incorporation; the Equal Protection Clause drives Brown, Baker, Shaw and affirmative action cases.
Fifteenth Amendment (1870): Bans denying the vote because of race; Southern states got around it with literacy tests, poll taxes and white primaries; the Twenty-Fourth Amendment and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 finally made it work in practice.
Seventeenth Amendment (1913): Voters elect senators directly instead of state legislatures choosing them.
Nineteenth Amendment (1920): Bans denying the vote because of sex.
Twenty-Second Amendment (1951): Limits a president to two elected terms (at most 10 years in office).
Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964): Bans poll taxes in federal elections.
Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971): Lowers the voting age to 18 for all elections.

Numbers and rules to know

Units 1, 2, 5

House of Representatives: 435 members divided among states by population after each census; two-year terms; at least 25 years old and 7 years a citizen. Only the House starts revenue bills and impeaches.
Senate: 100 members, two per state; six-year terms with about a third up every two years; at least 30 and 9 years a citizen. Only the Senate confirms appointments (simple majority), approves treaties (two-thirds) and tries impeachments.
President: At least 35, a natural-born citizen and 14 years a resident; four-year term, two-term limit.
Filibuster and cloture: In the Senate, unlimited debate lets a minority stall a bill; ending debate (cloture) usually takes 60 votes, three-fifths of the Senate. Since 2013 and 2017, debate on all presidential nominations can be ended by a simple majority. The House has no filibuster because the Rules Committee sets time limits.
Electoral College: 538 electors (435 House + 100 Senate + 3 for Washington, D.C.); 270 wins. Every state except Maine and Nebraska gives all its electors to the statewide winner, so a candidate can win the national popular vote and still lose the election, as in 2000 and 2016. If no one has 270, the House picks the president from the top three, with one vote per state delegation.
Articles of Confederation voting rules: One vote per state; 9 of 13 states to pass major laws; all 13 to amend.
Bill passage path: Introduced, sent to committee and subcommittee (hearings, markup), reported to the floor (in the House through the Rules Committee), passed by both chambers in identical form (a conference committee can settle differences), then signed or vetoed.
Mandatory vs. discretionary spending: Mandatory spending (Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, interest on the debt) is set by existing law and is most of the budget; discretionary spending (defense, education and more) is decided each year in appropriations bills.

Unit 1 terms: foundations

Unit 1

Natural rights · social contract · popular sovereignty · limited government: People are born with rights; they agree to a government to protect them; government's power comes from the people; and that power has limits. John Locke's ideas shaped all four.
Republicanism: The people elect representatives to make laws for them, rather than voting on every law themselves.
Participatory, pluralist and elite democracy: Participatory stresses broad involvement by ordinary citizens (example: ballot initiatives); pluralist stresses groups competing for influence (example: interest groups, Federalist No. 10); elite stresses decisions by a smaller, educated or wealthy few (example: the Electoral College, the original Senate). All three exist in U.S. government.
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists: Federalists backed the Constitution and a stronger national government; Anti-Federalists feared it would threaten liberty and the states, and their demand helped add the Bill of Rights.
Faction: A group united by a shared interest or passion that works against others' rights or the common good (Madison's definition in Federalist No. 10).
Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787): An uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers that the weak national government couldn't stop, which pushed leaders toward the Constitutional Convention.
Great (Connecticut) Compromise: Settled representation: the House by population (Virginia Plan) and the Senate with two per state (New Jersey Plan).
Three-Fifths Compromise: Counted three of every five enslaved people for representation and direct taxes, boosting slave states' power in the House and Electoral College.
Separation of powers and checks and balances: Separation gives each branch its own job; checks and balances give each branch tools to block the others, like the veto, Senate confirmation and judicial review.
Federalism and its powers: Power shared between national and state governments. Enumerated (listed) and implied powers belong to the nation; reserved powers belong to the states; concurrent powers, like taxing and borrowing, belong to both.
Categorical vs. block grants: Categorical grants come with strict rules on how the money is spent; block grants give states broad flexibility within a policy area. States often prefer block grants.
Mandates and unfunded mandates: Federal requirements states must follow; an unfunded mandate comes without federal money to pay for it.
Devolution: Shifting power and responsibility from the national government back to the states.
Multiple access points: Federalism and separation of powers give people many places to push for change: local, state and national, and through each branch.

Unit 2 terms: Congress and the presidency

Unit 2

Speaker of the House and Rules Committee: The Speaker, elected by the whole House but in practice the majority party's choice, leads the House and controls the agenda; the Rules Committee sets how long a bill is debated and whether amendments are allowed.
Committees: Standing (permanent, by policy area), select (temporary, special purpose), joint (both chambers) and conference (settles House–Senate differences on a bill).
Hold: A senator's informal notice that they object to a bill or nomination, which can delay it.
Discharge petition and unanimous consent: A discharge petition signed by a majority of the House (218 members) forces a bill out of a committee that is sitting on it. Unanimous consent lets the Senate skip its normal rules to move business quickly, so a single senator's objection can slow things down.
Pork-barrel spending and logrolling: Pork is spending for projects in a member's own district; logrolling is trading votes ('you vote for my bill, I'll vote for yours').
Trustee, delegate and politico: A trustee votes on their own judgment, a delegate votes as constituents want, and a politico mixes both depending on the issue.
Gerrymandering and redistricting: Redistricting redraws district lines after each census; gerrymandering draws them to help one party (partisan) or to shape racial makeup (racial). A majority-minority district is one where a minority group makes up most of the voters.
Divided government, polarization and gridlock: Divided government means different parties control the presidency and at least one chamber of Congress; with polarized parties this often leads to gridlock, where little gets passed.
Formal vs. informal presidential powers: Formal powers are written in the Constitution (veto, commander in chief, treaties, appointments, pardons); informal powers are not (executive orders, executive agreements, signing statements, bully pulpit).
Executive order · executive agreement · signing statement: An executive order directs federal agencies and has the force of law but can be undone by a later president, Congress or courts; an executive agreement is a deal with another country that doesn't need Senate approval; a signing statement explains how the president plans to interpret a law.
War Powers Resolution (1973): Passed over a presidential veto after the Vietnam War: the president must notify Congress within 48 hours of sending troops into hostilities and must bring them home within 60 days (plus 30 to withdraw) unless Congress approves. It is Congress's check on the commander in chief, and presidents have often questioned it.
Cabinet and Executive Office of the President: The Cabinet is made up of the heads of the executive departments, confirmed by the Senate; the Executive Office (including the White House staff) advises the president directly.
Unitary executive and limited vs. expansive views: One president controls the executive branch (Federalist No. 70). The limited view says presidents should use only clearly listed powers; the expansive view says they may act broadly unless the Constitution or law forbids it.
Bully pulpit and going public: The president's ability to command national attention and appeal directly to the public, through speeches like the State of the Union and through radio, TV and social media, to pressure Congress and set the agenda.

Unit 2 terms: courts and bureaucracy

Unit 2

Judicial review: The power of courts to strike down laws and government actions that violate the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison).
Precedent and stare decisis: Courts usually follow earlier rulings on similar questions ('let the decision stand'), but the Court can overturn precedent, as Brown did to Plessy.
Majority, concurring and dissenting opinions: The majority opinion is the ruling and its reasoning; a concurring opinion agrees with the result for different reasons; a dissent disagrees and can guide future cases.
Judicial activism vs. judicial restraint: Activism is willingness to strike down laws and overturn precedent; restraint means deferring to elected branches and sticking to precedent. Either label can apply to liberal or conservative rulings.
Checks on the courts: Congress and the president can appoint and confirm new judges, pass new laws or amendments to undo a ruling, limit which appeals the Court can hear, and be slow to enforce rulings.
Writ of certiorari and the rule of four: Most cases reach the Supreme Court when it agrees to hear an appeal; four of the nine justices must vote to take a case.
Bureaucracy: The executive departments, independent agencies, regulatory commissions and government corporations that carry out federal law.
Merit system vs. patronage: Patronage (the spoils system) gives jobs to political supporters; the merit-based civil service, begun by the Pendleton Act of 1883, hires by tests and qualifications.
Discretionary and rulemaking authority: Congress writes broad laws and delegates to agencies the power to decide how to carry them out and to write detailed regulations, such as EPA pollution rules.
Iron triangle vs. issue network: An iron triangle is a stable alliance of an agency, a congressional committee and an interest group that help each other; an issue network is a looser, larger web of experts, advocates, staff and groups working on one policy area.
Holding the bureaucracy accountable: Congress uses oversight hearings, investigations and the power of the purse; the president appoints agency leaders and issues orders; courts can rule agency actions illegal; compliance monitoring checks that rules are followed.

Unit 3 terms and laws: liberties and rights

Unit 3

Civil liberties vs. civil rights: Civil liberties are protections from government (free speech, due process); civil rights are protections from discrimination, guaranteed by government (equal protection, civil rights laws).
Establishment vs. free exercise clauses: The establishment clause stops government from setting up or sponsoring religion (Engel); the free exercise clause protects practicing your faith (Yoder). The two can pull against each other.
Unprotected and limited speech: Government may punish speech that incites imminent lawless action, obscenity, defamation (libel is written, slander is spoken) and true threats, and may set content-neutral time, place and manner rules.
Symbolic speech: Actions that send a message, like wearing an armband (Tinker) or burning a flag, can count as protected speech.
Prior restraint: Government blocking material before it is published; almost never allowed (New York Times Co. v. United States).
Selective incorporation: Applying Bill of Rights protections to the states case by case through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause (examples: Gideon, McDonald, Mapp). Before that, the Bill of Rights limited only the national government.
Procedural vs. substantive due process: Procedural due process means government must follow fair procedures before taking life, liberty or property; substantive due process means some rights are so basic that government can't take them away even with fair procedures.
Exclusionary rule and Miranda rule: Illegally gathered evidence usually can't be used in court; suspects in custody must be told their rights before questioning, with a public safety exception.
Equal protection clause: Part of the Fourteenth Amendment requiring states to treat people equally under the law; used by the civil rights, women's rights and LGBTQ rights movements.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: Banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin in public places such as hotels and restaurants, and in employment; passed under the Commerce Clause.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: Suspended literacy tests in places that used them and had low voter registration or turnout, sent federal examiners to register voters, and required those places to get federal approval (preclearance) before changing voting rules; Black voter registration in the South rose sharply. In Shelby County v. Holder (2013) the Court struck down the formula that decided which places needed preclearance.
Title IX (1972): Bans sex discrimination in education programs that get federal money, including school sports.
Affirmative action: Policies meant to widen opportunities in schools and jobs for groups that faced discrimination. Supporters cite diversity and past discrimination; opponents say treating applicants differently by race is itself discrimination.
Social movements: The civil rights movement, women's rights movement (including the National Organization for Women, founded 1966), LGBTQ rights movement, and pro-life and pro-choice movements have all pressed government through protests, lawsuits and lobbying.

Unit 4 terms: ideologies and public opinion

Unit 4

Core American values: Individualism (self-reliance), equality of opportunity (an equal chance, not equal results), free enterprise (private ownership and markets), limited government (government power has limits) and rule of law (everyone, including leaders, follows the law). Americans share them but disagree on how to apply them.
Political socialization and its agents: The lifelong process of forming political beliefs through family (usually the strongest), school, peers, media, religious and civic groups; globalization spreads ideas both into and out of the U.S.
Generational vs. life-cycle effects: Generational effects come from big events a whole age group shares; life-cycle effects come from stages of life, like starting a career or raising children.
Types of polls: Opinion polls on issues; benchmark polls that set a starting point for a campaign; tracking polls that follow the same question over time; exit polls of voters leaving polling places.
What makes a poll reliable: A random, representative sample big enough to keep the margin of error small (about ±3 points for around 1,000 people), neutral wording and clear questions, and conclusions that match the data.
Liberal: Generally favors more government action to promote equality, provide social programs and regulate the economy, and stresses expanding civil rights. Democratic Party platforms tend to line up more closely with liberal positions.
Conservative: Generally favors less government regulation of the economy, lower taxes and more state and local control, and stresses traditional values, order and public safety. Republican Party platforms tend to line up more closely with conservative positions.
Libertarian: Wants minimal government in both economic and social life, beyond protecting property, contracts and individual liberty.
Fiscal policy: Congress and the president use taxing and spending to steer the economy. Keynesians stress government spending to raise demand in a downturn; supply-siders stress tax cuts and fewer regulations to encourage investment and growth.
Monetary policy and the Federal Reserve: The independent Federal Reserve manages the money supply, mainly by steering interest rates, aiming for maximum employment and stable prices.
Liberty vs. order: Many policy debates (surveillance, immigration, welfare rules) come down to how much individual freedom to trade for safety and stability; the balance shifts over time.

Unit 5 terms: participation

Unit 5

Models of voting behavior: Rational choice: vote for what benefits you. Retrospective: judge the party in power on past results. Prospective: vote on predictions of future performance. Party-line (straight-ticket): vote for one party for every office.
Turnout factors: Turnout rises with age, education and income, and with political efficacy (the belief that your participation matters). It is higher in presidential than midterm years and is shaped by state rules on registration, voter ID, early and mail voting.
Linkage institutions: Parties, interest groups, elections and the media connect citizens to government policymakers.
Party functions: Recruit candidates, mobilize and educate voters, write platforms, run campaigns and organize government (leadership and committees in Congress).
Critical election and realignment: A critical election produces a lasting shift in which groups support which party (a realignment), as in 1932, when the New Deal coalition formed.
Candidate-centered campaigns: Candidates now run their own campaigns, raise their own money and reach voters directly through media, so parties control nominations less than before.
Why third parties struggle: Winner-take-all, single-member districts reward the two biggest parties; ballot-access rules and debate rules add hurdles; and major parties adopt popular third-party ideas. Proportional representation gives parties seats by vote share instead.
Interest group tactics: Lobbying, testifying, drafting bills, endorsements, campaign donations through PACs, grassroots mobilization, lawsuits and amicus curiae (friend of the court) briefs.
Free-rider problem and selective benefits: People can enjoy a group's wins without joining or paying; groups offer member-only perks (selective benefits) to recruit.
Primaries and caucuses: Closed primaries let only registered party members vote; open primaries let any voter choose a party's ballot; caucuses are meetings where party members choose delegates. Delegates formally nominate at the national convention.
Front-loading: States moving their primaries earlier in the calendar to have more influence on the nomination.
Incumbency advantage: Officeholders usually win reelection thanks to name recognition, fundraising, staff, casework and media attention; it is strongest for House members.
Federal Election Campaign Act (1971, strengthened 1974): Required candidates to report where their money comes from and how they spend it, limited contributions to candidates, and (in 1974) created the Federal Election Commission to enforce the rules and public funding for presidential campaigns.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002): Banned soft money (unlimited donations) to national parties, limited issue ads close to elections and added the 'stand by your ad' rule requiring candidates to say they approve their ads.
PAC vs. super PAC: A PAC gives limited contributions directly to candidates; a super PAC can raise and spend unlimited amounts on independent ads but can't coordinate with or give directly to candidates (after Citizens United).
Media roles: Agenda setting (deciding which issues seem important), gatekeeping, watchdog and investigative reporting, and horse-race coverage that focuses on who's ahead in polls rather than on issues.
Changing media: More choices (cable, websites, social media) let people pick sources that match their views, feeding partisan media, echo chambers, worries about bias and ownership, and doubts about which sources to trust.

Using all this on the exam

Units 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

SCOTUS comparison question: You'll get a summary of a case you haven't studied, and the question names the required case to compare it with. Identify the shared clause or fact (for example, both involve the establishment clause in public schools), explain how the holdings compare, and explain how the new ruling affects people or government.
Argument essay: Take a clear position, support it with at least two pieces of specific evidence, at least one from a required foundational document listed in the prompt, explain how the evidence supports your claim, and respond to an opposing view by refuting, conceding or rebutting it.
Concept application and data questions: Name the specific concept, then explain how it applies to the scenario; for data, describe the exact trend with numbers, draw a conclusion the data supports, and link it to a political process or institution.
Writing cases and documents well: For a case, give the name, the constitutional clause, the facts in one line and the holding. For a document, give the author's main argument in your own words and connect it to a principle like federalism or popular sovereignty.