3.5 Nature and Role of Political Participation

The UK voting age for general elections is still 18. Scotland and Wales already let 16- and 17-year-olds vote in their own devolved and local elections. A government bill, the Representation of the People Bill, would extend the vote in UK general elections to 16- and 17-year-olds. It had its second reading in the House of Lords on 14 September 2026, so check whether it has become law.

Mexico's first election of judges, on 1 June 2025, drew about 13% turnout, a reminder that turnout depends on how much voters know about and care about the contest.

• Voting in elections and referendums.
• Campaigning, joining a party or donating.
• Joining interest groups, unions or civil society organizations.
• Contacting officials and signing petitions.
• Protests, strikes and boycotts.
• Political violence, such as riots or insurgency, usually when people believe peaceful channels are closed.

Participation can be done alone, like voting, or in groups, like a strike. It can support the regime, like joining a pro-government rally, or oppose it, like a protest aimed at changing a policy or even the regime itself. Voluntary participation is freely chosen. Coerced participation is required or pressured by the state, such as mandatory rallies or workers told to vote. In the Soviet Union, turnout was routinely reported at over 99%. Coerced participation shows the regime's ability to mobilize people, not their real support. Some regimes also use limited participation as a safety valve: allowing small protests, local elections or online complaints lets people vent and gives leaders information, without threatening their power.

A referendum lets voters decide a single question directly. Governments call them for different reasons: to let citizens settle a big question themselves, to let a leader go around the legislature, or to hand voters a hard, possibly unpopular choice that politicians would rather not make alone. Examples:

Authoritarian regimes offer some channels. In China, citizens can vote in village elections, join the party, complain online or petition officials through the long-standing letters-and-visits system. These channels let people raise local problems, but not challenge the party itself. Democracies hold elections so citizens can steer policy and remove leaders. Authoritarian regimes more often use participation to show strength, intimidate opponents or give people a sense of influence they don't really have. In Iran, voting is presented as a civic and religious duty, and the regime points to turnout as proof of support, which is why record-low turnout in 2024 drew so much attention.