3.4 Political Values and Beliefs

Under the rule of law, laws are public, applied equally and enforced by independent courts, and leaders are bound by them like everyone else. In the UK, ministers who break the law can be challenged in court and lose.

Under rule by law, the government uses laws to control society but places itself above them. Laws may be vague so they can be used against critics, and courts follow the ruling party. China is the main example: its leaders speak of “law-based governance,” but courts answer to the Communist Party. Iran and Russia also show features of rule by law, especially in political cases. The difference shapes how states handle problems like corruption: under rule of law, independent courts and prosecutors pursue it wherever it leads; under rule by law, anti-corruption drives can be aimed at rivals.

Societies disagree about how much the state should reduce inequality. Citizens in both democracies and authoritarian regimes hold views on equality; what differs is how much responsibility is handed to the state and how much choice people keep over their own health and welfare. A welfare state provides benefits like health care, pensions and unemployment support, paid for by taxes. Some people value equality of opportunity (fair rules and access), while others want more equality of outcome (narrowing gaps in income or wealth).

The UK built a broad welfare state after 1945, including the tax-funded National Health Service. Mexico and Nigeria have weaker welfare systems with large informal economies, where many workers aren't covered. China has expanded basic health insurance and pensions, though benefits depend partly on where people are registered. Iran's religious foundations (bonyads) and subsidies have long served as part of its welfare system.

Debates about the welfare state usually set equality and security against cost, taxes and personal responsibility.

The political scientist Ronald Inglehart argued that as societies grow richer and safer, younger generations care less about economic and physical security (materialist values) and more about self-expression, the environment, gender equality and participation (post-materialist values).

Post-materialist voters push governments to act on the environment and on social and economic equality. Post-materialism shows up in green parties and climate movements, which are stronger in wealthy democracies like the UK. In poorer countries, or in times of economic crisis, materialist concerns like jobs, prices and security usually dominate.

Surveys that measure these values usually find a generation gap, with younger people in wealthy countries more likely to rank self-expression above economic security.

• Order vs. liberty: how much freedom to give up for security.
• Religion vs. secularism: Iran's theocracy and Nigeria's Sharia states versus the UK's mostly secular politics.
• Individual vs. collective: Western liberal ideas compared with collective goals stressed in China.