AP® African American Studies review sheet from Aim for Five (aimforfive.com/african-american-studies/units/4/4-3)
Unit 4 · Topic 4.3
4.3 African Americans and the Second World War: The Double V Campaign and the G.I. Bill
About 1.2 million African Americans served in a segregated military during the Second World War, including the Tuskegee Airmen and the women of the 6888th battalion. The Double V campaign demanded victory over fascism abroad and racism at home, but discrimination kept many Black veterans from the full benefits of the G.I. Bill.
Key terms
- Double V campaign
- Tuskegee Airmen
- 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion
- G.I. Bill
- Pittsburgh Courier
Serving in a segregated military
The US armed forces were segregated when the Second World War began. Even so, over two million African American men registered for the draft or volunteered, and about 1.2 million served, in every branch of the military. Many were assigned to support jobs rather than combat, but Black units also fought with distinction.
The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African American military pilots. Trained at Tuskegee, Alabama, they served in the Army Air Forces, flying in North Africa and Europe; they became known as the Red Tails for the markings on their planes. The required 1945 photo shows the flight instructors at Tuskegee Army Airfield.
Black women served too. Educator Mary McLeod Bethune and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt pushed for Black women to be included in the Women's Army Corps. The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion, more than 800 women including some of Caribbean and Mexican descent, was sent to England and France to clear a huge backlog of mail for soldiers. The required 1945 photo shows its commander, Major Charity Adams, and Captain Mary Kearney inspecting the unit in England.
The Double V campaign
African Americans pointed out the contradiction of fighting fascism and racism abroad while facing Jim Crow at home. In 1942 James G. Thompson, a 26-year-old African American from Wichita, Kansas, wrote a letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, a leading Black newspaper, asking whether he should sacrifice his life to live as only 'half-American'. He proposed a 'double victory': victory over fascism abroad and over racism and segregation at home.
The Courier launched the Double V campaign with a logo, articles and events, and Black communities across the country embraced it. Earlier, in 1941, A. Philip Randolph's threatened March on Washington had pushed President Franklin Roosevelt to ban discrimination in defense industries. In 1948 President Harry Truman ordered the armed forces desegregated.
The G.I. Bill
The G.I. Bill of 1944 thanked returning veterans, including about 1.2 million Black veterans, with money for college, low-cost home mortgages and low-interest loans to start businesses. These were major paths to economic security and mobility.
The law was race-neutral on paper. But it was administered by local and state officials, banks and colleges, and in many places they followed Jim Crow practices. Black veterans were often denied loans, steered away from programs or limited to segregated colleges with no room for them. Many received fewer benefits or none, so the benefits flowed mostly to white veterans and helped widen the racial wealth gap (4.5, 4.15).
Black veterans also faced violent attacks when they came home, often because they demanded the rights they had fought for. Their experiences helped spark the postwar Civil Rights movement.
Worked examples
Try each one yourself first, then open the solution.
- Example 1
Explaining a contradiction
Explain why many African Americans supported the Double V campaign during the Second World War.
Show the solutionHide the solution
- Step 1: Describe the contradiction: fighting fascism abroad while facing segregation at home.
- Step 2: Describe the campaign: victory over fascism abroad and racism at home, launched by the Pittsburgh Courier in 1942.
- Step 3: Explain why it appealed: it combined patriotism with a demand for equal rights.
Answer: Model answer: Many African Americans served a country that segregated them in the military and denied them rights at home, even as it fought racist fascist regimes abroad. The Double V campaign, sparked by James G. Thompson's 1942 letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, let them support the war while demanding equality, calling for victory over fascism abroad and over Jim Crow at home.
Common mistakes
- Thinking the military was integrated during the war. It was segregated until Truman's 1948 order.
- Assuming the G.I. Bill helped all veterans equally. Local Jim Crow practices kept many Black veterans from its benefits.
- Forgetting Black women's service, such as the 6888th battalion.
On the exam
- Be ready to explain why a race-neutral law could have unequal results. The G.I. Bill is the classic example.
- Connect the war to the postwar Civil Rights movement (4.4, 4.6).
Connected topics
Videos
Check yourself
4 questions on 4.3 African Americans and the Second World War: The Double V Campaign and the G.I. Bill. Pick an answer to see if you got it, and why.
In early 1942, weeks after the United States entered World War II, a reader wrote to the Pittsburgh Courier, a leading Black newspaper, asking whether he should sacrifice his life to live as half an American. He proposed that Black Americans fight for two victories: one over the enemies abroad and one over those at home who denied them their rights. The newspaper launched a campaign around his idea, with a symbol of two V's.
Summary written for this practice set of James G. Thompson, letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, 1942, and the Courier's Double V campaign (no quotation)
Thompson's letter mainly expressed
Which of the following provides the most relevant context for the letter?
The Tuskegee Airmen are significant mainly because they
A 1945 photograph shows Major Charity Adams inspecting members of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion in England. The photo best shows that during World War II
0 of 4 answered